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The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank," none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city. | |||
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</Ref> in Luke and actually means "specifically to enter in public records the names of men, their property and income; to enroll".<Ref>{{583}}</Ref> It also appears in Hebrews but is translated "written".<Ref>Hebrews 12:23 To the general assembly and church of the firstborn, which are written in heaven, and to God the Judge of all, and to the spirits of just men made perfect,</Ref> In the Old Testament the firstborn were specifically the Levites who were the "[[called out in the wilderness]]" and in the New Testament the "[[called out]]" were the [[disciples]] of [[Jesus]] who were called the [[church]] and [[appoint]]ed by [[Christ]], our mediator.<Ref>Hebrews 12:24 And to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, and to the blood of sprinkling, that speaketh better things than [that of] Abel. </Ref> | </Ref> in Luke and actually means "specifically to enter in public records the names of men, their property and income; to enroll".<Ref>{{583}}</Ref> It also appears in Hebrews but is translated "written".<Ref>Hebrews 12:23 To the general assembly and church of the firstborn, which are written in heaven, and to God the Judge of all, and to the spirits of just men made perfect,</Ref> In the Old Testament the firstborn were specifically the Levites who were the "[[called out in the wilderness]]" and in the New Testament the "[[called out]]" were the [[disciples]] of [[Jesus]] who were called the [[church]] and [[appoint]]ed by [[Christ]], our mediator.<Ref>Hebrews 12:24 And to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, and to the blood of sprinkling, that speaketh better things than [that of] Abel. </Ref> | ||
The Romans seldom did anything without a purpose, a plan, and the hope of profit. To have a good plan they needed good information. There were from 45 to 65 million people in the Roman Empire at different times and a census was often scheduled every 5 years. Augustus's own census information recorded almost 5,000,000 citizens of Rome.<Ref>"A third time, with the consular imperium, and with my son Tiberius Caesar as my colleague, note I performed the lustrum in the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius. In this lustrum 4,937,000 Roman citizens were entered on the census roll. By the passage of new laws I restored many traditions of our ancestors which were then falling into disuse, and I myself set precedents in many things for posterity to imitate." Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Section 8, Tablet 2. (Eng. The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) | The Romans seldom did anything without a purpose, a plan, and the hope of profit. To have a good plan they needed good information. When Augustus' commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloging of peoples and places within the Empire. Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.<Ref>Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. Claude Nicolet, (1991). University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10096-5.</Ref> | ||
There were from 45 to 65 million people in the Roman Empire at different times and a census was often scheduled every 5 years. Augustus's own census information recorded almost 5,000,000 citizens of Rome.<Ref>"A third time, with the consular imperium, and with my son Tiberius Caesar as my colleague, note I performed the lustrum in the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius. In this lustrum 4,937,000 Roman citizens were entered on the census roll. By the passage of new laws I restored many traditions of our ancestors which were then falling into disuse, and I myself set precedents in many things for posterity to imitate." Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Section 8, Tablet 2. (Eng. The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) | |||
: Latin, "Et tertium consulari cum imperio lustrum conlega Tib. Caesare filio meo feci, Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos. Caesare filio meo feci Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos., quo lustro censa sunt civium Romanorum capitum quadragiens centum millia et nongenta triginta et septem millia. Legibus novis me auctore latis multa exempla maiorum exolescentia iam ex nostro saeculo reduxi et ipse multarum rerum exempla imitanda posteris tradidi." Res Gestae Divi Augusti. | : Latin, "Et tertium consulari cum imperio lustrum conlega Tib. Caesare filio meo feci, Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos. Caesare filio meo feci Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos., quo lustro censa sunt civium Romanorum capitum quadragiens centum millia et nongenta triginta et septem millia. Legibus novis me auctore latis multa exempla maiorum exolescentia iam ex nostro saeculo reduxi et ipse multarum rerum exempla imitanda posteris tradidi." Res Gestae Divi Augusti. | ||
: Note: "civium Romanorum capitum" literally translates "of the heads of the citizens of the Romans".</Ref> | : Note: "civium Romanorum capitum" literally translates "of the heads of the citizens of the Romans".</Ref> | ||
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Shortly before Julius Caesar, the Romans depended upon nd all voluntary army. Gaius Marius and the Marian Reforms' moved to a professional army which did more to alter Roman society than many realize.<Ref>Citizen militia to a professional army; Removed property requirement of legionnaire and allowed Capite Census to join; State supplied wages and armor; allowed officers and soldiers to profit from loot and plunder.</Ref> | Shortly before Julius Caesar, the Romans depended upon nd all voluntary army. Gaius Marius and the Marian Reforms' moved to a professional army which did more to alter Roman society than many realize.<Ref>Citizen militia to a professional army; Removed property requirement of legionnaire and allowed Capite Census to join; State supplied wages and armor; allowed officers and soldiers to profit from loot and plunder.</Ref> | ||
The vast wealth accumulated by Generals bought them prestige and political power. Those gifts, gratuities, and grants to the people not only bought the "license to do no wrong"<Ref> “In my 13th consulship I gave 60 denarii to each plebeian who was at that time receiving bread from the state. A little more than 200,000 people availed of this congiarium” (Deeds of Augustus [Res Gestae]</Ref> it | The vast wealth accumulated by Generals bought them prestige and political power. Those gifts, gratuities, and grants to the people by ''congiarium''<Ref>Of Ancient Roman containers, a congiarium, or congiary, was a vessel containing one congius, a measure of volume equal to six sextarii. In the early times of the Roman Republic, the congius was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain occasions, distributed among the people; and thus congiarium became a name for liberal donations to the people whether consisting of oil, wine, grain, or money, or other things.</Ref>not only bought the "license to do no wrong"<Ref> “In my 13th consulship I gave 60 denarii to each plebeian who was at that time receiving bread from the state. A little more than 200,000 people availed of this congiarium” (Deeds of Augustus [Res Gestae] | ||
: Some emperors granted 100s of denarii beside [[free bread]] and other commodities every year.</Ref> it robbed the people of the responsibility of doing what is right through their [[covetous practices|deceitful dainties]]. | |||
These [[covetous practices|deceitful dainties]] of rulers were also offered to the Roman client states or allies. They would also be obligated to provide [[tribute]] and even supply reinforcements to the Roman army. As provinces would be required to show [[consent]] by [[compact|agreement]] and make "a register of cities", a "census of the population, and a "surveying the land".<Ref> Potter (2009), p. 183.</Ref> Their government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings. <Ref> Potter (2009), pp. 177–179.</Ref> Among these client states were Pontus, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Judea, Palestine, and, by 65 BCE, Armenia. In Africa Mauretania, Algeria and Morocco also became client states. | |||
In order to be taxed, you must be counted. Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of a household to appear before the presiding official and provide a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.<Ref> ''A Companion to the Roman Empire'', David S. Potter, ed. (2009). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6.</Ref> | In order to be taxed, you must be counted. Both the benefits and the Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of a household to appear before the presiding official and provide a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.<Ref> ''A Companion to the Roman Empire'', David S. Potter, ed. (2009). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6.</Ref> | ||
A [[census]] as well as [[taxation]] in those days required some form of accounting and usually required a token to mark<Ref>A common token could be a clay [[Tesserae]].</Ref> those who had been counted. The census called for by Augustus “was regarded as the [[charagma|badge of servitude]], and incompatible with the Theocratic character of Israel”.<Ref>The sole grounds of resistance to the census, appears from Jos. Ant. xviii. 1. 1, 6.</Ref> | A [[census]] as well as [[taxation]] in those days required some form of accounting and usually required a token to mark<Ref>A common token could be a clay [[Tesserae]].</Ref> those who had been counted. The census called for by Augustus “was regarded as the [[charagma|badge of servitude]], and incompatible with the Theocratic character of Israel”.<Ref>The sole grounds of resistance to the census, appears from Jos. Ant. xviii. 1. 1, 6.</Ref> | ||
Judea did not hate Rome. Many loved and desired their protection, generosity, and social security; besides, they were good for business. There were rebels, as always. There was corruption, as always. Caesar was the protector of their peace, the [[Benefactors|benefactor]] of their [[welfare]]. | Judea did not hate Rome. Many loved and desired their protection, generosity, and social security; besides, they were good for business. There were rebels, as always. There was corruption, as always. Caesar was the protector of their peace, the [[Benefactors|benefactor]] of their [[welfare]]. | ||
Many Jews loved the Emperor ([[Emperator]]),<Ref>Emperator, emperatoris m. commander in chief. Collins L.E. Dict. ‘62.</Ref> the ''commander-in-chief'' of the multinational military force that kept the peace throughout the [[world]]. Augustus Caesar offered many gifts, gratuities, and benefits as the [[Patronus]] of the [[Pax Romana]], ''The [[Father]] of Roman Peace''. | |||
<blockquote>“The annual Temple-tribute was allowed to be transported to Jerusalem, and the alienation of these funds by the civil magistrates treated as sacrilege. As the Jews objected to bear arms, or march, on the Sabbath, they were freed from military service. On similar grounds, they were not obliged to appear in courts of law on their holy days. Augustus even ordered that, when the public distribution of corn or of money among the citizens fell on a Sabbath, the Jews were to receive their share on the following day. In a similar spirit the Roman authorities confirmed a decree by which the founder of Antioch, Seleucus I. (Nicator, [d Ob.280 B.C.]) had granted the Jews the right of citizenship in all the cities of Asia Minor and Syria which he had built, and the privilege of receiving, instead of the oil that was distributed, which their religion forbade them to use, [e Ab. Sar ii. 6] an equivalent in money. [Jos.Ant. Xii. 3. 1]. These rights were maintained by Vespasian and Titus even after the last Jewish war, not with standing the earnest remonstrances of these cities. No wonder, that at the death of Caesar the Jews of Rome gathered for many nights, waking strange feelings of awe in the city, as they chanted in mournful melodies their Psalms around the pyre on which the body of their benefactor had been burnt, and raised their pathetic dirges.”<Ref>''Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah'' Chapt. V, Alfred Edersheim, Jewish convert to Christianity and a Biblical scholar.</Ref> </blockquote> | <blockquote>“The annual Temple-tribute was allowed to be transported to Jerusalem, and the alienation of these funds by the civil magistrates treated as sacrilege. As the Jews objected to bear arms, or march, on the Sabbath, they were freed from military service. On similar grounds, they were not obliged to appear in courts of law on their holy days. Augustus even ordered that, when the public distribution of corn or of money among the citizens fell on a Sabbath, the Jews were to receive their share on the following day. In a similar spirit the Roman authorities confirmed a decree by which the founder of Antioch, Seleucus I. (Nicator, [d Ob.280 B.C.]) had granted the Jews the right of citizenship in all the cities of Asia Minor and Syria which he had built, and the privilege of receiving, instead of the oil that was distributed, which their religion forbade them to use, [e Ab. Sar ii. 6] an equivalent in money. [Jos.Ant. Xii. 3. 1]. These rights were maintained by Vespasian and Titus even after the last Jewish war, not with standing the earnest remonstrances of these cities. No wonder, that at the death of Caesar the Jews of Rome gathered for many nights, waking strange feelings of awe in the city, as they chanted in mournful melodies their Psalms around the pyre on which the body of their benefactor had been burnt, and raised their pathetic dirges.”<Ref>''Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah'' Chapt. V, Alfred Edersheim, Jewish convert to Christianity and a Biblical scholar.</Ref> </blockquote> | ||
Revision as of 16:54, 17 January 2020
The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) refers to a social distinction that is translated variously into English as "class, order, rank," none of which is exact. One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. The two highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, the decurions, also known as curiales (Greek bouleutai), were the top governing ordo of an individual city.
,
Biblical Chronology
By Valeriy Sterkh
Census
- "And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed." Luke 2:1
The word we see translated "tax" appears three times[1] in Luke and actually means "specifically to enter in public records the names of men, their property and income; to enroll".[2] It also appears in Hebrews but is translated "written".[3] In the Old Testament the firstborn were specifically the Levites who were the "called out in the wilderness" and in the New Testament the "called out" were the disciples of Jesus who were called the church and appointed by Christ, our mediator.[4]
The Romans seldom did anything without a purpose, a plan, and the hope of profit. To have a good plan they needed good information. When Augustus' commemorative account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloging of peoples and places within the Empire. Geography, the census, and the meticulous keeping of written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[5]
There were from 45 to 65 million people in the Roman Empire at different times and a census was often scheduled every 5 years. Augustus's own census information recorded almost 5,000,000 citizens of Rome.[6]
This was no small task and required a uniform method, places to store the record and people you could trust. This is where the Temples, often built by the Roman government provided the place and the trusted priests and priestesses, in the case of Rome, performed the process.
Shortly before Julius Caesar, the Romans depended upon nd all voluntary army. Gaius Marius and the Marian Reforms' moved to a professional army which did more to alter Roman society than many realize.[7]
The vast wealth accumulated by Generals bought them prestige and political power. Those gifts, gratuities, and grants to the people by congiarium[8]not only bought the "license to do no wrong"[9] it robbed the people of the responsibility of doing what is right through their deceitful dainties.
These deceitful dainties of rulers were also offered to the Roman client states or allies. They would also be obligated to provide tribute and even supply reinforcements to the Roman army. As provinces would be required to show consent by agreement and make "a register of cities", a "census of the population, and a "surveying the land".[10] Their government recordkeeping included births and deaths, real estate transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings. [11] Among these client states were Pontus, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Judea, Palestine, and, by 65 BCE, Armenia. In Africa Mauretania, Algeria and Morocco also became client states.
In order to be taxed, you must be counted. Both the benefits and the Tax obligations were determined by the census, which required each head of a household to appear before the presiding official and provide a headcount of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation.[12]
A census as well as taxation in those days required some form of accounting and usually required a token to mark[13] those who had been counted. The census called for by Augustus “was regarded as the badge of servitude, and incompatible with the Theocratic character of Israel”.[14]
Judea did not hate Rome. Many loved and desired their protection, generosity, and social security; besides, they were good for business. There were rebels, as always. There was corruption, as always. Caesar was the protector of their peace, the benefactor of their welfare.
Many Jews loved the Emperor (Emperator),[15] the commander-in-chief of the multinational military force that kept the peace throughout the world. Augustus Caesar offered many gifts, gratuities, and benefits as the Patronus of the Pax Romana, The Father of Roman Peace.
“The annual Temple-tribute was allowed to be transported to Jerusalem, and the alienation of these funds by the civil magistrates treated as sacrilege. As the Jews objected to bear arms, or march, on the Sabbath, they were freed from military service. On similar grounds, they were not obliged to appear in courts of law on their holy days. Augustus even ordered that, when the public distribution of corn or of money among the citizens fell on a Sabbath, the Jews were to receive their share on the following day. In a similar spirit the Roman authorities confirmed a decree by which the founder of Antioch, Seleucus I. (Nicator, [d Ob.280 B.C.]) had granted the Jews the right of citizenship in all the cities of Asia Minor and Syria which he had built, and the privilege of receiving, instead of the oil that was distributed, which their religion forbade them to use, [e Ab. Sar ii. 6] an equivalent in money. [Jos.Ant. Xii. 3. 1]. These rights were maintained by Vespasian and Titus even after the last Jewish war, not with standing the earnest remonstrances of these cities. No wonder, that at the death of Caesar the Jews of Rome gathered for many nights, waking strange feelings of awe in the city, as they chanted in mournful melodies their Psalms around the pyre on which the body of their benefactor had been burnt, and raised their pathetic dirges.”[16]
The call for all the world to be taxed was a call for all the world to be enrolled as the beneficiaries of the The Father of Roman Peace.
“The year 2 B.C. marked the 25th anniversary of Caesar Augustus’s rule and the 750th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Huge celebrations were planned. The whole empire was at peace. The doors of the temple of Janus were closed for only the third time in Roman history. To honor their emperor, the people were to rise as one and name him pater patriae, or Father of the Country. This enrollment, described in the Book of Luke, which brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem, has always been a mystery since no regular census occurred at this time. But the pater patriae enrollment fits perfectly.”[17]
"Parens patriae" is Latin for “father of the Fatherland” a title originally accorded in the form parens urbis Romanae, or "parent of the Roman city". It was accorded to Marcus Furius Camillus in 386 BC because he led the city's recovery after its capture by the Gauls (c. 390 bc). In the legal system, "parens patriae is a doctrine that allows the state to step in and serve as a guardian for children, the mentally ill, the incompetent, the elderly, or disabled persons who are unable to care for themselves."[18]
Parens patriae is Latin for "parent of the nation". Parens patriae is not just an ancient doctrine but is found as the power of the modern state to control the activities of the people in Title 15 Commerce and Trade[19], Title 12, Banks And Banking[20], Title 18. Crimes And Criminal Procedure[21], Title 49. Transportation[22] and Title 42. Public Health and Welfare[23] of the United States Codes[24] and the laws of the several states.
The enrolment in the benefits schemes of the state alters the relationship and status of the people. Many Jews refused to register on religious grounds and were considered "idiotes".[25] The more people apply to the benefaction of the state the more power the state has over the people. Plutarch wrote in his "Life of Coriolanus" (c. 100 AD.), "That the man who first ruined the Roman people twas he who first gave them treats and gratuities." But Polybius had warned the people 250 years earlier what their fate would be the fate of the nation if they become accustomed to taking these treats and gratuities of the State.
Herod the Great needed the favor and support of Rome and conformed to the changes that were taking place in Rome to maintain his ruling power. He was for the census and enrolment in his own scheme set up with the help of the Pharisees which perverted the ancient system of Corban into an entitlement program no longer dependent on freewill offerings.
Some put the date at 4BC at Herod's death in 4BC but that is highly disputed and likely wrong based on a misidentified lunar eclipse. There were other eclipses. It is possible that a transcriber or the author of Luke's gospel made an error identifying which census. There were also a number of the local census of varying kinds and what Quirinius was doing and when ruling is also disputed because there is some evidence that he was in charge during other periods including some rebellions in Galilee. None of this is substantive to the message. Some people even try disputing the existence of Christ with this conflicting information. These dates used is based on Josephus who does not dispute Christians and verifies them with Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 of the Antiquities with the line "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James". Herod was a client king of Judea who rebuilt the Second Temple (in Jerusalem) known as Herod's Temple. He instituted the Baptism of the temple that established the Corban of the Pharisees that according to Jesus made the word of God to none effect.
Besides registering the adults you would also have to register newborn children just as Rome was doing. Some opposed this registration of children on religious and doctrinal bases but some understood it was part of a three-step plan according to Jus Romanus (Roman Law) to make the State the Father of the people.
- "Birth registration in ancient Rome. Birth certificates for Roman citizens were introduced during the reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD). Until the time of Alexander Severus (222–235 AD), it was required that these documents be written in Latin as a marker of "Romanness" (Romanitas)."[26]
"Birth registration" was important to create a uniform rule for the distribution of benefits, duties, and obligations. It was a part of a three-step process founded in natural law to create a legal system which made the State the Father of a nation.
The government of Rome provided many benefits like free bread through the Imperial Cult of Rome run through the government-sponsored Temples. These certificates were stored in the Temple of Saturn. Religion had always been the institution providing for the poor or needy of society such as widows and orphans. From the Altars of Clay and Stone of Abraham and Moses there were safeguards[27]in the practice of religion among the Israelites to prevent the Levite priests from gaining to much power. There were also constitutional limitations imposed by the Bible in Deuteronomy 17 if the people elected to create any offices of power such as kings, presidents, or prime ministers. When these safeguards against tyranny were ignored or forgotten governments of the world became corrupt, society began to decay, and its members began to degenerate.
- “Herod’s greatest fault was his ungovernable passion both in love and hate. This coupled with his constant fear of losing this throne led to most of his ‘crimes’ especially those committed within his own family.”[28]
- Herod Archelaus (23 BC–c. AD 18), ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Idumea from 4 BC to 6 AD, when Judaea province was formed under direct Roman rule, at the time of the Census of Quirinius.[29] He was the son of Herod the Great and Malthace the Samaritan, the brother of Herod Antipas, and the half-brother of Herod Philip I. In 4 BC Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Samaria, Judea, and Idumea) with the title of ethnarch (not king).
Archelaus is mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 2:13-23). In it, Joseph, Mary, and Jesus fled to Egypt to avoid the Massacre of the Innocents. When Herod the Great died, Joseph was told by an angel in a dream to return to Israel (presumably to Bethlehem). However, upon hearing that Archelaus had succeeded his father as ruler of Judaea he "was afraid to go thither" (Matthew 2:22), and was again notified in a dream to go to Galilee. This is Matthew's explanation of why Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea but grew up in Nazareth.
The beginning and conclusion of Jesus's Parable of the minas, the master gives 10 of his servants one mina each and tells them to engage in trade while he is away. This parable in the Gospel of Luke 19:12-27 may refer to Archelaus' journey to Rome. Some interpreters conclude from this that Jesus' parables and preaching made use of events familiar to the people as examples for bringing his spiritual lessons to life. Others read the allusion as arising from later adaptations of Jesus's parables in the oral tradition before the parables were recorded in the gospels.
- ↑ Luke 2:1 And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed <583>.
- Luke 2:3 And all went to be taxed <583>, every one into his own city.
- Luke 2:5 To be taxed <583> with Mary his espoused wife, being great with child.
- ↑ 583 ~ἀπογράφω~ apographo \@ap-og-raf’-o\@ from 575 and 1125; v AV-tax 3, write 1; 4
- 1) to write off, copy (from some pattern)
- 2) to enter in a register or records
- 2a) spec. to enter in public records the names of men, their property and income
- 2b) to enroll
- ↑ Hebrews 12:23 To the general assembly and church of the firstborn, which are written in heaven, and to God the Judge of all, and to the spirits of just men made perfect,
- ↑ Hebrews 12:24 And to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, and to the blood of sprinkling, that speaketh better things than [that of] Abel.
- ↑ Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. Claude Nicolet, (1991). University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10096-5.
- ↑ "A third time, with the consular imperium, and with my son Tiberius Caesar as my colleague, note I performed the lustrum in the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Apuleius. In this lustrum 4,937,000 Roman citizens were entered on the census roll. By the passage of new laws I restored many traditions of our ancestors which were then falling into disuse, and I myself set precedents in many things for posterity to imitate." Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Section 8, Tablet 2. (Eng. The Deeds of the Divine Augustus)
- Latin, "Et tertium consulari cum imperio lustrum conlega Tib. Caesare filio meo feci, Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos. Caesare filio meo feci Sex. Pompeio et Sex. Appuleio cos., quo lustro censa sunt civium Romanorum capitum quadragiens centum millia et nongenta triginta et septem millia. Legibus novis me auctore latis multa exempla maiorum exolescentia iam ex nostro saeculo reduxi et ipse multarum rerum exempla imitanda posteris tradidi." Res Gestae Divi Augusti.
- Note: "civium Romanorum capitum" literally translates "of the heads of the citizens of the Romans".
- ↑ Citizen militia to a professional army; Removed property requirement of legionnaire and allowed Capite Census to join; State supplied wages and armor; allowed officers and soldiers to profit from loot and plunder.
- ↑ Of Ancient Roman containers, a congiarium, or congiary, was a vessel containing one congius, a measure of volume equal to six sextarii. In the early times of the Roman Republic, the congius was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain occasions, distributed among the people; and thus congiarium became a name for liberal donations to the people whether consisting of oil, wine, grain, or money, or other things.
- ↑ “In my 13th consulship I gave 60 denarii to each plebeian who was at that time receiving bread from the state. A little more than 200,000 people availed of this congiarium” (Deeds of Augustus [Res Gestae]
- Some emperors granted 100s of denarii beside free bread and other commodities every year.
- ↑ Potter (2009), p. 183.
- ↑ Potter (2009), pp. 177–179.
- ↑ A Companion to the Roman Empire, David S. Potter, ed. (2009). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6.
- ↑ A common token could be a clay Tesserae.
- ↑ The sole grounds of resistance to the census, appears from Jos. Ant. xviii. 1. 1, 6.
- ↑ Emperator, emperatoris m. commander in chief. Collins L.E. Dict. ‘62.
- ↑ Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah Chapt. V, Alfred Edersheim, Jewish convert to Christianity and a Biblical scholar.
- ↑ The Star of Bethlehem by Crag Chester, Imprimis D/96 Hilsdale College.
- ↑ https://study.com/academy/lesson/parens-patriae-in-juvenile-justice-definition-doctrine.html
- ↑ 15 U.S. Code § 15 Applicability of parens patriae actions § 15h. Applicability of parens patriae actions Sections 15c, 15d, 15e, 15f, and 15g of this title shall apply in any State...
- ↑ Title 12. Banks And Banking, Chapter 53. "the State, as parens patriae, may bring a civil action on behalf of its residents in an appropriate district court...
- ↑ Title 18. Crimes And Criminal Procedure, Part I. Crimes, Chapter 77. Peonage, Slavery, And Trafficking, In Persons, Section 1595. Civil Remedy adversely affected by any person who violates section 1591, the attorney general of the State, as parens patriae, may bring a civil action against such person on behalf of the residents of the State...
- ↑ Title 49. TRANSPORTATION, ...the attorney general of the state may, as parens patriae,” for “a State authority may”...
- ↑ Title 42. THE PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE, Chapter 7. SOCIAL SECURITY... residents of that State has been or is threatened or adversely affected by any person who violates a provision of this part, the attorney general of the State, as parens patriae, may bring...
- ↑ Search parens patriae at https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/searchResultsForm.html
- ↑ idiōtēs (ἰδιώτης) from idios meaning as 'pertaining to one's self, one's own, belonging to one's self'. "Etymology. Idiot as a word derived from the Greek idiotes, idiotes ('a private citizen', 'individual'), from idios, idios ('private', 'one's own')." https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Idiot#Etymology
- ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_registration_in_ancient_Rome
- ↑ Contributions were freewill offerings not forced. Levites had no personal estate but held all things common.
- ↑ Living in the Time of Jesus of Nazareth by Peter Connolly. Published: Steimatzky 1983.
- ↑ Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (c. 51 BC – AD 21) was a Roman aristocrat mentioned in Res Gestae - The Deeds of Augustus by Augustus placing him as consul as early as 12 B.C.. Caesar's son Gaius Caesar was sent to administer Syria as an Imperial Legate in 1 B.C. and the Roman historian Tacitus Annals mentions in Book 3 Chapter 48 that Quirinius was an advisor to Gaius around 1 A.D Quirinius was later the governor of Syria during another census.